Key finding: South African studies of student stress and distress use different samples, scales and cut-offs, so their reported rates cannot be compared directly. A 2026 study of 229 undergraduate students with disabilities at three universities reported that 81.7% met criteria for depression and 74.2% for probable PTSD on its chosen measures, while other studies of 419 and 919 students asked different questions with different tools. A dissertation on this construct must therefore define it, choose a measure on purpose and report rates only for that measure.
What does “student stress” mean as a dissertation construct?
Student stress is a family of constructs, not one. Studies in South African psychology and higher education journals use at least four distinct labels for neighbouring ideas: perceived stress (how overloaded a person feels), academic stress (stress linked to studies), psychological distress (a mix of depression, anxiety and related symptoms) and specific outcomes such as depression, anxiety or PTSD symptoms. Each needs a different measure and has different ethical consequences. Decide which one your research question is about, then write the definition in Chapter 1 using the approach in the site’s guide to the variables and hypotheses matrix for a psychology dissertation.
What have South African studies actually measured?
The table below sets out five South African studies, each with its source and year, as they are described in their published abstracts. It shows how much the choice of sample and measure changes what a study can say. Read the full article before you cite any of them.
| Study and year | Sample | Design and measures | What it reports |
|---|---|---|---|
| Viljoen and Padmanabhanunni (2026), South African Journal of Psychology, 56(3), pp. 475–488 | 229 undergraduate students with disabilities from three South African universities | Quantitative; Beck Hopelessness Scale-9, UCLA Loneliness Scale Version 3, Short Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Rating Interview, Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test, Centre for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale, State-Trait Anxiety Inventory-5 (state version); descriptive statistics, correlations, multiple regression | 74.2% met criteria for probable PTSD, 81.7% for depression, 55% for hopelessness and 43.7% for anxiety; gender and disability type were significant predictors |
| Makhubela (2020), South African Journal of Psychology, 51(1), pp. 35–53 | 919 university students (mean age 21 years, 72% female) | Regularised partial correlation network models of depressive symptoms by comorbid anxiety level and gender | Anhedonia, hopelessness, worthlessness, self-blame and loneliness were the most central depressive symptoms; no significant difference in network structure by comorbid anxiety or gender |
| Munsamy, Walker and McHugh (2023), South African Journal of Psychology, 53(3), pp. 377–388 | 419 students, convenience sample, one large public university | Quantitative; mediation of the link between experiential avoidance and emotional distress by repetitive negative thinking | Experiential avoidance and repetitive negative thinking positively predicted emotional distress; repetitive negative thinking partially mediated the relationship |
| Fincham, Roomaney and Kagee (2015), South African Journal of Psychology, 45(4), pp. 508–520 | 211 undergraduate students | Online questionnaire including the Health-Promoting Lifestyle Inventory and the Hopkins Symptom Checklist; hierarchical regression | Examined worldview, self-efficacy, psychological distress and a health-promoting lifestyle |
| Khumalo (2026), South African Journal of Higher Education, 40(3) | Fifteen undergraduate students in Durban, convenience sampling | Qualitative; in-depth semi-structured interviews; narrative therapy and ecosystems perspective | Academic stress does not always have negative consequences and can bring positive outcomes when it is managed |
Three lessons follow. First, a high rate in one study (81.7% for depression among students with disabilities) describes that sample on that measure, and cannot be quoted as the rate for South African students. Second, the same construct family can be studied quantitatively, with networks and mediation, or qualitatively through interviews. Third, almost every study chooses a narrow population, which is also how you keep your own project finishable.
Which scales can you use, and what do they not tell you?
| Scale | What the source says | Source | Watch out for |
|---|---|---|---|
| Perceived Stress Scale (PSS) | Exists as 4-item, 10-item and 14-item versions; the developer’s page states that it is not a diagnostic instrument, has no score cut-offs, and supports only comparisons within your own sample; permission requests go through the ePROVIDE platform of Mapi Research Trust, which the page says is free of charge | Cohen, Kamarck and Mermelstein (1983), Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 24(4), pp. 385–396; Carnegie Mellon University scales page | Do not report “high stress” categories as if they were clinical bands |
| Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS) | The University of New South Wales page describes a 42-item self-report instrument measuring depression, anxiety and tension or stress, and says the questionnaire is in the public domain and can be downloaded from the site; a short 21-item form (DASS-21) was examined by Henry and Crawford (2005) | UNSW DASS page; Henry and Crawford (2005), British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 44(2), pp. 227–239 | A South African validation of the DASS-21 exists for working adults (Dreyer, Henn and Hill, 2019), not students; report reliability from your own sample |
| Measures used in the Viljoen and Padmanabhanunni study | The study used the CES-D for depression, the STAI-5 (state version) for anxiety, the Beck Hopelessness Scale-9 and the UCLA Loneliness Scale among others | Viljoen and Padmanabhanunni (2026) | Rates depend on each scale’s criteria; cite them only for that study’s measures |
Whichever you choose, follow the site’s guides to finding a validated questionnaire for the permission and evidence checks, and to reporting Cronbach’s alpha for the reliability you must add from your own data. Treat scale scores as indicators of symptoms, not as diagnoses, and say so in your methodology.
Which theories frame this construct in the South African literature?
- Network approach to psychopathology. Makhubela (2020) used network models to examine how symptoms of depression relate to each other and to anxiety.
- Ecosystems perspective and narrative therapy. Khumalo (2026) used these to connect an interview study of academic stress to existing knowledge.
- A process model of avoidance and repetitive negative thinking. Munsamy and colleagues (2023) tested repetitive negative thinking as a mediator between experiential avoidance and distress.
Choose one framework that fits the question and justify it. The site’s guide to the theoretical framework for a psychology master’s dissertation explains the four tests for choosing between theories.
Which designs fit one academic year?
| Design | Illustrative question | Typical measure |
|---|---|---|
| Cross-sectional survey | How are perceived stress levels distributed among first-year students at one institution? | PSS or DASS-21, with demographics |
| Correlational or mediation | Does repetitive negative thinking mediate the link between a coping style and distress? | Two or three validated scales |
| Group comparison | Do students in different programmes differ on perceived stress? | One validated scale, a defined sample |
| Qualitative interviews | How do final-year students describe the pressures of finishing a degree? | Semi-structured interviews, thematic analysis |
| Intervention (pre-post) | Do scores change after a short workshop? | The same scale at two time points |
Every question in the table is illustrative. Narrow each to a defined population, institution and year. The site’s list of psychology honours research topics shows how a topic becomes a question with a design.
How do you handle the ethics of a distress study?
A study of student distress asks questions that can upset participants, so the ethics application needs more than the usual items. Plan for: voluntary, anonymous participation; a clear statement that the questionnaire is not a diagnosis; a distress protocol explaining what you will do if a participant reports serious symptoms; and the contact details of campus counselling and other services on the information sheet and again at the end of the questionnaire. Avoid recruiting from your own class or from students you supervise, because power relations affect free choice. The site’s guide to ethics clearance at South African universities explains the committee process.
Ten researchable titles
These titles are illustrative starting points. Each needs a defined population and a measure that fits your definition.
- Perceived stress among first-year students at one South African university: a cross-sectional survey.
- Depressive symptoms and loneliness among undergraduate students: a correlational study.
- Repetitive negative thinking as a mediator between avoidance and distress in postgraduate students.
- Academic stress as experienced by final-year students: a qualitative interview study.
- Differences in perceived stress between students in health sciences and humanities programmes.
- Psychological distress among students who work part-time while studying.
- Help-seeking for stress among undergraduate students: attitudes and barriers.
- The effect of a brief time-management workshop on perceived stress among first-year students.
- Stress and sleep quality among residence students: an association study.
- Postgraduate students’ experience of supervision and stress: a qualitative case study.
What mistakes weaken a student stress dissertation?
- Quoting prevalence from another study as if it were a national rate.
- Using cut-offs the scale does not support, such as clinical labels for the PSS.
- Mixing constructs (stress, depression, burnout) in one title without defining each.
- No distress protocol in the ethics application.
- Skipping reliability in your own sample because a scale is “validated”.
Organise your research report with Tesify
A distress study asks you to align a definition, a scale, a theory, an ethics plan and an analysis, and the links between them are where examiners probe. 9,000+ students have written 15,000+ chapters with Tesify, which helps you structure and organise your dissertation, and the text stays 100% written by you. Organise your research report with Tesify.
Frequently asked questions
Which scale should I use to measure student stress?
It depends on the construct. The Perceived Stress Scale measures perceived stress, the DASS covers depression, anxiety and tension or stress, and other scales target specific outcomes. Choose the scale that matches your definition and check permission to use it.
Is the Perceived Stress Scale a diagnostic tool?
No. The developer’s page states that it is not a diagnostic instrument, that there are no score cut-offs and that you can only compare scores within your own sample.
Is the DASS free to use?
The page of the University of New South Wales states that the DASS questionnaire is in the public domain and may be downloaded from that site. Check the terms on the version you use.
Is there a South African validation of the DASS-21?
Dreyer, Henn and Hill (2019) validated the DASS-21 in a non-clinical sample of South African working adults. That is not a student sample, so report reliability from your own data.
Can I report prevalence figures from another study?
Only for the population and measures that study used, and only with its source. Rates from one scale and cut-off do not transfer to another.
Do I need ethics clearance for a student stress survey?
Yes. Because the topic is sensitive, include a distress protocol and referral to campus counselling in your application.
Can I recruit students from my own class?
Be careful. Power relations and confidentiality are concerns, so recruit through a neutral channel and make participation voluntary and anonymous.
What is a good qualitative design for academic stress?
In-depth semi-structured interviews are common, as in Khumalo’s (2026) study of fifteen undergraduate students in Durban, which used convenience sampling.
References cited
- Cohen, S., Kamarck, T. and Mermelstein, R. (1983) A global measure of perceived stress. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 24(4), pp. 385–396.
- Dreyer, Z., Henn, C. and Hill, C. (2019) Validation of the Depression Anxiety Stress Scale-21 (DASS-21) in a non-clinical sample of South African working adults. Journal of Psychology in Africa, 29(4), pp. 346–353.
- Fincham, S.M., Roomaney, R. and Kagee, A. (2015) The relationship between worldview, self-efficacy, psychological distress, and a health-promoting lifestyle among a South African undergraduate university sample. South African Journal of Psychology, 45(4), pp. 508–520.
- Henry, J.D. and Crawford, J.R. (2005) The short-form version of the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS-21): construct validity and normative data in a large non-clinical sample. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 44(2), pp. 227–239.
- Khumalo, S. (2026) Exploring the root causes of academic stress among undergraduate students in Durban, South Africa. South African Journal of Higher Education, 40(3).
- Makhubela, M. (2020) Comorbid anxiety and depression psychopathology in university students: a network approach. South African Journal of Psychology, 51(1), pp. 35–53.
- Munsamy, K., Walker, S. and McHugh, L. (2023) Repetitive negative thinking mediates the relationship between experiential avoidance and emotional distress among South African university students. South African Journal of Psychology, 53(3), pp. 377–388.
- Viljoen, A.-J. and Padmanabhanunni, A. (2026) Psychological distress among South African students with disabilities: levels and correlates of depression, anxiety, PTSD, alcohol use, hopelessness, and loneliness. South African Journal of Psychology, 56(3), pp. 475–488.